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<title>Polymer backbone</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Polymer backbone</span></span>

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<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>

<p><b>Main chain</b> or <b>Backbone</b><br>That linear chain to which all other chains, long or short or both,<br>may be regarded as being pendant.

</p><p><i>Note</i>: Where two or more chains <br> could equally be considered to be the main chain, that one is <br>selected which leads to the simplest representation of the <br>molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>In <a href="Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">polymer science</a>, the <b>polymer chain</b> or simply <b>backbone</b> of a <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> is the main chain of a polymer. Polymers are often classified according to the elements in the main chains. The character of the backbone, i.e. its flexibility, determines the properties of the polymer (such as the <a href="Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> temperature). For example, in <a href="Silicone" title="Silicone">polysiloxanes</a> (silicone), the backbone chain is very flexible, which results in a very low <a href="Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> temperature of −123 °C (−189 °F; 150 K).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The polymers with rigid backbones are prone to <a href="Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a> (e.g. <a href="Polythiophenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Polythiophenes">polythiophenes</a>) in <a href="Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a> and in <a href="Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>. Crystallization in its turn affects the optical properties of the polymers, its optical <a href="Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> and electronic levels.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organic_polymers">Organic polymers</h2></div>

<p>Common synthetic polymers have main chains composed of carbon, i.e. C-C-C-C.... Examples include <a href="Polyolefin" title="Polyolefin">polyolefins</a> such as <a href="Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> ((CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>n</sub>) and many substituted derivative ((CH<sub>2</sub>CH(R))<sub>n</sub>) such as <a href="Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> (R = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>), <a href="Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> (R = CH<sub>3</sub>), and <a href="Acrylate" title="Acrylate">acrylates</a> (R = CO<sub>2</sub>R').

</p><p>Other major classes of organic polymers are <a href="Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a> and <a href="Polyamide" title="Polyamide">polyamides</a>. They have respectively -C(O)-O- and -C(O)-NH- groups in their backbones in addition to chains of carbon. Major commercial products are <a href="Polyethyleneterephthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyethyleneterephthalate">polyethyleneterephthalate</a> ("PET"), ((C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>CO<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>OC(O))<sub>n</sub>) and <a href="Nylon-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Nylon-6">nylon-6</a> ((NH(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>5</sub>C(O))<sub>n</sub>).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inorganic_polymers">Inorganic polymers</h2></div>

<p><a href="Siloxane" title="Siloxane">Siloxanes</a> are a premier example of an inorganic polymer, even though they have extensive organic substituents. Their backbond is composed of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms, i.e. Si-O-Si-O... The silicon atoms bear two substituents, usually <a href="Methyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl">methyl</a> as in the case of <a href="Polydimethylsiloxane" title="Polydimethylsiloxane">polydimethylsiloxane</a>. Some uncommon but illustrative inorganic polymers include <a href="Polythiazyl" title="Polythiazyl">polythiazyl</a> ((SN)x) with alternating S and N atoms, and polyphosphates ((PO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>)<sub>n</sub>).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biopolymers">Biopolymers</h2></div>

<p>Major families of biopolymers are <a href="Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (carbohydrates), <a href="Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>, and <a href="Polynucleotide" title="Polynucleotide">polynucleotides</a>. Many variants of each are known.<sup id="cite_ref-Voet16_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voet16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proteins_and_peptides">Proteins and peptides</h3></div>

<p>Proteins are characterized by <a href="Peptide_bond" title="Peptide bond">amide linkages</a> (-N(H)-C(O)-) formed by the condensation of <a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. The sequence of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is known as the <a href="Protein_primary_structure" title="Protein primary structure">primary structure</a> of the protein. Like almost all polymers, protein fold and twist, forming into the <a href="Protein_secondary_structure" title="Protein secondary structure">secondary structure</a>, which is rigidified by <a href="Hydrogen_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonding">hydrogen bonding</a> between the <a href="Carbonyl_group" title="Carbonyl group">carbonyl</a> oxygens and amide hydrogens in the backbone, i.e. C=O---HN. Further interactions between residues of the individual amino acids form the protein's <a href="Protein_tertiary_structure" title="Protein tertiary structure">tertiary structure</a>. For this reason, the primary structure of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is the map of the final structure of a protein, and it therefore indicates its biological function.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Voet16_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voet16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spatial positions of backbone atoms can be reconstructed from the positions of alpha carbons using computational tools for the backbone reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</h3></div>

<p>Carbohydrates arise by condensation of <a href="Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> such as <a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>. The polymers can be classified into <a href="Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a> (up to 10 residues) and <a href="Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (up to about 50,000 residues). The backbone chain is characterized by an ether bond between individual monosaccharides. This bond is called the <a href="Glycosidic_bond" title="Glycosidic bond">glycosidic linkage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These backbone chains can be unbranched (containing one linear chain) or branched (containing multiple chains). The glycosidic linkages are designated as <a href="Anomer" title="Anomer"><i>alpha</i> or <i>beta</i></a> depending on the relative <a href="Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a> of the <a href="Anomer" title="Anomer">anomeric</a> (or most <a href="Oxidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized">oxidized</a>) carbon. In a <a href="Fischer_projection" title="Fischer projection">Fischer Projection</a>, if the glycosidic linkage is on the same side or face as carbon 6 of a common biological saccharide, the carbohydrate is designated as <i>beta</i> and if the linkage is on the opposite side it is designated as <i>alpha</i>. In a traditional "<a href="Cyclohexane_conformation" title="Cyclohexane conformation">chair structure</a>" projection, if the linkage is on the same plane (equatorial or axial) as carbon 6 it is designated as <i>beta</i> and on the opposite plane it is designated as <i>alpha</i>. This is exemplified in <a href="Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (table sugar) which contains a linkage that is <i>alpha</i> to glucose and <i>beta</i> to <a href="Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>. Generally, carbohydrates which our bodies break down are <i>alpha</i>-linked <a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">(example: glycogen)</a> and those which have structural function are <i>beta</i>-linked (example: <a href="Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Voet16_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voet16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleic_acids">Nucleic acids</h3></div>

<p><a href="Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">Deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) and <a href="RiboNucleic_Acid" class="mw-redirect" title="RiboNucleic Acid">ribonucleic acid</a> (RNA) are the main examples of <a href="Polynucleotide" title="Polynucleotide">polynucleotides</a>. They arise by condensation of nucleotides. Their backbones form by the condensation of a hydroxy group on a <a href="Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a> with the <a href="Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> group on another ribose. This linkage is called a <a href="Phosphodiester_bond" title="Phosphodiester bond">phosphodiester bond</a>. The condensation is catalyzed by <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> called <a href="Polymerase" title="Polymerase">polymerases</a>. DNA and RNA can be millions of nucleotides long thus allowing for the <a href="Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> of life. The bases project from the pentose-phosphate polymer backbone and are <a href="Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonded</a> in pairs to their <a href="Complementary_nucleotide" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary nucleotide">complementary</a> partners (A with T and G with C). This creates a <a href="Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix</a> with pentose phosphate backbones on either side, thus forming a <a href="Protein_secondary_structure" title="Protein secondary structure">secondary structure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Voet16_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voet16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="IUPAC_books" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 5th ed. (the "Gold Book") (2025). Online version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/M03694.html">main chain (backbone) <i>of a polymer</i></a>". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBuschiazzo2004" class="citation journal cs1">Buschiazzo, Alejandro (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC514502">"Crystal structure of glycogen synthase: homologous enzymes catalyze glycogen synthesis and degradation"</a>. <i>The EMBO Journal</i>. <b>23</b> (16): <span class="nowrap">3196–</span>3205. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.emboj.7600324">10.1038/sj.emboj.7600324</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC514502">514502</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15272305">15272305</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBertozziRabuka2009" class="citation book cs1">Bertozzi CR, Rabuka D (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1955/">"Structural Basis of Glycan Diversity"</a>. In Varki A, Cummings RD, Esko JD, et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1908/"><i>Essentials of Glycobiology</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780879697709</bdi>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20301274">20301274</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertsJohnsonLewis2002" class="citation book cs1">Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850/">"DNA Replication Mechanisms"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/"><i>Molecular Biology of the Cell</i></a> (4th ed.). Garland Science. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8153-3218-1</bdi>. NBK26850.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLodishBerkZipursky2000" class="citation book cs1">Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101210172801/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21475/">"4.1, Structure of Nucleic Acids"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21475/"><i>Molecular Cell Biology</i></a> (4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7167-3136-3</bdi>. NBK21514. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21514/">the original</a> on December 10, 2010.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<ul><li><a href="Pendant_group" title="Pendant group">Pendant group</a></li>

<li><a href="Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptide</a></li></ul>

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